Functioning Expressive Speech Acts in the 2019 Indonesian Presidential Election Debates

History: Received: 2021-02-14 Accepted: 2021-05-17 Published: 2021-06-22 This study aimed at investigating and explaining how the expressive speech acts functioned and differed in use among the candidates. A case study research design was employed. The data were the formal forms of expressive speech acts, lingual markers, and contexts. The sources were videos of five debate programs containing utterances, conversations, or dialogs made by both candidates. Candidates 01 belonged to Jokowi-Ma’ruf Amin, while candidates 02 belonged to Prabowo-Sandiaga Uno. Nonparticipatory observation and documentation techniques were used to collect data, and then they were analyzed using the content analysis model. Findings show sixteen functions of the expressive speech acts, namely, thanking, greeting, apologizing, blaming, praising, regretting, complaining, criticizing, expressing hopes, agreeing, disagreeing, expressing optimism, expressing wants, insinuating, making jokes, and appreciating. Then, candidates had different tendencies in functioning these expressive speech acts. Both candidates used greeting, apologizing, praising, complaining, disagreeing, expressing optimism, expressing wants, and making jokes almost equally. Then, candidate 01 tended to express hopes and insinuate, while candidates 02 were to thanking, blaming, regretting, criticizing, thanking, agreeing, and appreciating. Finally, in the 2019 Indonesian presidential election debate, both candidates functioned the speech acts still with Indonesian norms and values.


Introduction
Debate is supposed to be the most exciting series in the presidential election. The United States (US) is the first country in modern politics to introduce debate before the presidential election. In 1960, the Democratic candidate, John F. Kennedy, met the Republican candidate, Richard Nixon, in the first nationally televised presidential debate. Kennedy beat Nixon fundamentally because of the way they appeared on TV. Television exposed Nixon to look uncomfortable, perhaps creepy, while Kennedy looked very articulated and sincere (Hillier, 2015). In the context of -83 -condemning, but no further discussion about this. Last, Herfani and Manaf (2020), researching the commissive and expressive speech acts in the 2019 Indonesian presidential election debate, found seven functions of the expressive speech acts, namely; congratulating, thanking, apologizing, praising, criticizing, insinuating, and complaining. From the above reviews, the expressive speech acts were not studied in a single focus, so the functions of the expressive speech acts were not wholly explored. Besides, the tendency of candidates to use the functions was not discovered yet. Therefore, the goal of this study was not only to investigate and explain the functions of expressive speech acts but also the tendency of the candidates in using the expressive speech acts. Hopefully, the results of this study may contribute to the implementation of the next presidential election debate. General Election Commission (KPU) may publish better guidelines or policies for better debate programs. For example, personal offenses or attacks are strictly prohibited to avoid conflicts among candidates and supporters. Next, future candidates can make the results of this study as the reference in performing speech acts, especially expressive speech acts. The public may get comprehensive information on how candidates make speech acts in the debate forum. It can be one of the considerations before they vote in the next presidential election. Last, this study may contribute to other researchers who are engaging in analyzing other speech acts in the debate.

Method
This study used a case study research design. Case study research is an empirical investigation of contemporary phenomena in real-life contexts (Yin, 2018). The research data were the formal forms of expressive speech acts made by candidates in five thematic debate rounds, lingual markers, and contexts of the speech acts. The data sources were videos of five debate programs containing utterances, conversations, or dialogs which were downloaded from Youtube. The data were collected through non-participatory observation and documentation techniques. Non-participatory observation means that the researcher does not involve in the events whose language is being studied. In this case, the researcher only listened to or observed five videos of the 2019 presidential election debate, which contain utterances, conversations, or dialogues. Meanwhile, documentation technique means the researcher noted or documented all utterances, conversations, or dialogues representing the expressive speech acts in the form of complete orthographic transcriptions. After the data were collected, they are analyzed by using the content analysis model.

Findings and Discussion
Based on the data analysis, the number of the functions of the expressive speech acts in this research was more than the previous researches as explained before. There were sixteen functions of expressive speech acts made by the candidates: thanking, greeting, apologizing, blaming, praising, regretting, complaining, criticizing, expressing hopes, agreeing, disagreeing, expressing optimism, and expressing wants insinuating, making jokes, and appreciating. However, each of the candidates had their tendency in functioning these expressive speech acts. The picture 1 shows the distribution of the functions.

Greeting
The greeting is a part of humans' culture although people in each part practice it differently. Greeting strategies are mostly found to be prime "access rituals" in communication processes, as they facilitate initiating a conversation (Meiirbekov, Elikbayev, Meirbekov, & Temirbaev, 2015). As one part of greetings, religious greetings were made by the candidates as seen in the utterances below.
The use of religious greetings above was not only the practice of religious commands but also some political intentions. As Moslems, both candidates wanted to get the sympathy of Moslem voters. Therefore, both Jokowi and Prabowo were aware that performing religious aspects, including Islamic greetings, would make the opportunity to win bigger (Sihidi, Roziqin, & Suhermanto, 2020). They both could not also deny that other voters from other religious followers were also significant. Greeting with their ways did not only mean respecting them, but also tried to build sympathy. In a very competitive election, their votes could be the key to win the race.

Apologizing
The expressive speech act of apologizing is the act of expressing regret or remorse. In informal situations, it may be called saying sorry. The goal of apologizing is generally forgiveness, reconciliation, and restoration of the relationship between the people involved in a dispute (Chiles & Roloff, 2014). Both candidates in the debate made an apology for some situation.
(Increasing the of research institutions, in our opinion, so sorry Mr. Kyai, will also increase bureaucracy) The above utterances show that the speakers had no such serious problems that they had to apologize. The apologies could be the politeness of the speakers in order not to offend the opponents. Both Jokowi and Prabowo had no intention to offend personally, while Sandiaga Uno used a Javanese apology to give high respect to Kyai Ma'ruf Amin as a senior cleric. Since no mistakes or blames to apologize, they should not express it sincerely. Shafa, et al. (2017) said the Apologies they made can reduce hostility, evoke cooperation, and decrease tension. Therefore, their apologies could be meant as the representation of speakers' politeness rather than apologizing itself.

Praising
Praising is an expressive speech act that occurs due to several factors, namely; the condition of the interlocutor is following the existing reality, the speaker wants to relieve the other's heart, the speaker wants to seduce and please the interlocutor, and the speaker wants to praise actions performed by the interlocutor. Both candidates made the expressive speech act of praising, but they had different addressees.

(Whatever it is, Mr. Joko Widodo has good achievement.)
Both candidates had different objects to praise. Jokowi seemed to praise his achievement, while Prabowo objectively praised what other people had achieved. It indicates that Jokowi and Prabowo had a different view of someone else. Prabowo had built good harmony with Jokowi, although they had been in the presidential race for two periods. Fei-lin and Gao-feng (2009) mentioned that the primary function of praise is to keep the harmony of human relationships. Jokowi's praise only keeps a good relationship with people connected to him, for example, his diplomats.

Complaining
Complaining is the speech act that expresses dissatisfaction with other people's products, services, or policies. Some people respond to complains as something negative for them. It can be described as something positive, or people may suppose it as a gift (Bleuel, 2010). In the debate programs, both candidates made some expressive speech acts of complaining.
(What we find is that there is an assumption in the society that the officials acted unequally.) The status of the candidates determines the complaints they made. The complaint made by Jokowi as an incumbent was a part of building trust (Siregar, Usmani, Kumaralalita, Nufaisa, & Putri, 2017). He wanted people, especially farmers, to believe in the government for the price of agricultural products. Meanwhile, as a rival, Prabowo made the issues of injustice and the officials' arbitrariness to increase his popularity among low class society. Through this complaint, he wanted to become the representative of the lower-class society who cared of law enforcement.

Disagreeing
The expressive speech act of disagreeing is the speech act that shows disagreement between the speaker and the interlocutor. Disagreement may appear when the speaker disagrees with ideas from someone else, or it can also happen when the speaker rejects to do something ordered by other people (Matheson & Frances, 2018). In the context of the debate, the disagreement comes in responding to the ideas or policies proposed by the interlocutor.
(If having such online system, public service system, and so on, but there is no strong political will, in my opinion, those institutions keep weak.) Both candidates expressed their disagreements in the above utterances. Jokowi made a direct disagreement, while Prabowo made it indirectly. The candidates' status could influence the way to express disagreement. In this context, Jokowi was an incumbent and he still had a strong position as the president. This power was reflected in the choice of the directness of the language. As the leader of a party, Prabowo's power was not as strong as Jokowi. Therefore, he positioned himself as an excellent opponent who might keep politeness so that he resolved his disagreement through a reasoned exchange of arguments and criticisms (Visser et al., 2019).

Expressing Optimism
The speech act of expressing optimism expresses someone's belief towards what they have planned or done. It can improve the speaker's confidence in the future. One of the benefits of being optimistic is to have a stronger immune system since it buffers it against psychological stressors (Duffy & Valentine, 2010). The primary lingual -87 -markers of this expressive speech act are "optimistic," "sure," or "believe." Both candidates expressed their optimism often during the debate programs.
(12) Ma'ruf Amin: Kami yakin bahwa riset kita di masa yang akan datang akan berhasil memajukan negara ini dan kita menuju ten years challenge. (We are sure that our research in the future will be successful to make this country developed dan we are on the way to ten years challenge.) (13) Sandiaga Uno: Saya yakin banyak lagi anak anak muda yang mampu berkarya demi Indonesia menang. (I am sure there will be more young people who are able to work for the future of Indonesia.) As the candidates of the Indonesian leaders, both candidates gave optimism to the public. Optimism speaks of an approach that is determined to see the best in human nature and which values rather than denigrates all that is best about human life: love, relationships, aesthetic appreciation and good health (Seldon, 2012). Their optimism reflected their love for the nation and indicated what they were going to do after officially elected. Decreasing unemployment was the concern of candidate 02, while candidate 01 was concerned with technology advancement.

Expressing Wants
The speech act of expressing wants is a speech act that shows the speaker's willingness to do something. It can be something good to happen and something terrible not to happen. In the 2019 presidential election, both candidates had some wants to do after elected as the president and vice president. Almost similar to optimism, wants can become the internal drive for someone to do something in the future. In the presidential election, wants are taken from the vision and mission of the candidates. Since Jokowi was an incumbent, their wants were not more than continuing Jokowi's programs in the first period of his presidency with Jusuf Kalla. Meanwhile, candidate 02 appeared with their new ideas and wills. Expressing wants was also a part of the presidential campaign to get sympathy from the prospective voters. In line with McGregor's et al (2009) ideas, the candidates' wants were dominantly reflected in a better economic condition in Indonesia.

Making Jokes
The expressive speech act of making jokes or joking is a speech act used to entertain or make other people laugh with certain language constructions. It can be done using a pun or other wordplay such as irony or sarcasm, a logical incompatibility, nonsense, or other means (Sløk-Andersen, 2019). In making jokes, candidates 01 are represented by Jokowi, while candidate 02 is represented by Sandiaga Uno.
Jokes have become an important part of the modern presidential election debate. In the 2016 US presidential election, Hillary Clinton used traditional humor or jokes, while Donald Trump's humor was more live and could entertain audiences (Haven, Advised, & Shapiro, 2017). In the 2019 Indonesian presidential election debate, humorists were represented by Jokowi and Sandiaga Uno. Jokowi's joke was too rigid and formal, while Sandiaga Uno made it more natural and entertained. Then, seeing the tendency of functioning the expressive speech acts, candidate 01 (Jokowi-Ma'ruf Amin) made more utterances in expressing hopes and insinuating.

Expressing Hopes
The speech act of expressing hopes is the speech act to tell what people expect to come to themselves in the future. In the 2019 presidential election debate, candidate 01 made more utterances to express hopes. The lingual markers of this expressive speech act are "hope," "to hope," and "to expect."

(18) Jokowi: Kita harapkan, dengan semakin cepatnya perizinan, dengan yang kecil-kecil tidak ada izin, mereka bisa melaut dan mendapatkan ikan lebih banyak lagi.
(We hope that they can go to sea with the quick system in permission and get more fish.) (19) Prabowo: Kita berharap akan ada lembaga hakim, lembaga polisi lembaga jaksa yang tidak dapat dikorupsi. (We hope there will be judges or police that cannot be corrupted.) Expressing hopes is also a strategy to show optimism to the public. Hopes can be an energy to create great ideas, which also causes happiness, courage, and empowerment. Both candidates had their hopes. Candidates 01 had their hopes of empowering digitalization programs for better and quicker public services. Meanwhile, candidate 02 empowered national capacities to create new job opportunities and clean government.

Insinuating
In the debate, candidate 01 did some expressive speech acts of insinuating. This speech act may occur because the speaker does not like what the interlocutor does or says. Insinuating can be done directly or indirectly, and it may bring consequences to the interlocutor, i.e., getting the face-threatening act (FTA). Candidate 01 did expressive speech acts of insinuating to offend candidate 02. (21) Ma'ruf Amin :Ya, Pak Prabowo, Pak Sandi, Bapak mengatakan 1% elit menguasai terlalu banyak aset dari sisi kekayaan.

Pak Prabowo dan Pak Sandi ini mungkin juga termasuk di antara elit itu. (Mr. Prabowo and Mr. Sandi may also belong to the elites.)
By imitating how Donald Trump offended Hillary Clinton personally (Haven et al., 2017), they offended candidate 02 with direct expressions of insinuating. Arisnawati (2020) mentioned that such direct expressions are not suitable for the candidate' interrelation. It was confirmed that the supporters of candidate 02 were objected to the offenses. They did not expect that personal offenses were allowed in the debate. The debate forum was stopped for a while by the committee to calm the supporters down. However, personal offenses of candidates 01 to candidates 02 were only, as stated by Jazeri (2018), a political interest to win people's support to achieve their political goals.

Blaming
The expressive speech act of blaming is a speech act that occurs due to several factors: an error made by the interlocutor, the interlocutor's irresponsibility for his mistake, or the interlocutor's escape from a mistake. In the debate, blaming with regretting and criticizing is a part of the communication strategy used by the speakers to discredit the opponents (D'Errico & Poggi, 2012).
(22) Prabowo: Kekayaan kita mengalir keluar negeri ini bukan "salah siapa saja." Ini salah kita bersama sebagai bangsa. Ini kesalahan elite yang membiarkan ini sudah puluhan tahun. (This is our mistake as a nation. It is the elite's mistake who ignore it for years.) In that utterance, Prabowo's expression of blaming functioned as a wrongness or mistake judgment (Malle, Guglielmo, & Monroe, 2014). In this case, the speaker also blamed himself as the part of the nation that ignored the money rush abroad. The blame was not explicitly addressed to the opponent because that mistake was not entirely under the opponent's responsibility. Implicitly, indirect blaming was Prabowo's strategy to avoid the face-threatening act of the opponent.

Regretting
The expressive speech act of regretting is a speech act that occurs because the speaker regrets the past events that result in the present situation. Someone may regret a mistake in the past that causes something terrible to happen at this time. Prabowo regretted some policies which were not pro to people.

(Why permitted the import? The farmers are in a serious problem. Why don't have industrialization but focus on infrastructure?)
As a part of racing to win the election, the expressive speech acts of regretting were made to discover the opponents' weaknesses. The regrets were the reflection of the speaker's sympathy for people. Prabowo was trying to position himself as the people's hero, so that he was famous in Muslim voters and lower-class society (Sihidi et al., 2020).

Criticizing
The expressive speech act of criticizing is a speech act that occurs because the speaker does not like or disagree with what the other persons are doing or saying. It is usually in the form of a response, sometimes accompanied by descriptions and good and bad considerations of work or opinion, and so on. In the debate, criticism was dominantly made by the rival, not the incumbent.

(25) Prabowo: BUMN kita adalah benteng terakhir ekonomi Indonesia, tetapi kita selalu melihat bahwa benteng-benteng itu goyah. (Our BUMN is the wall of the Indonesian economy, but we always see the walls shaken.)
Criticizing one another cannot be separated in the political competition. Criticisms made by Prabowo referred to social criticisms. The goal of social criticisms is not to criticize person per person, but policies or programs related to social sustainability. Therefore, the main characteristic of this criticism is carrying to be better (Itiqomah & Sofyan, 2015). Prabowo's criticisms were around fishers and farmers' welfare, lower-class people, law enforcement, clean government, and BUMN management for people's prosperity.

Thanking
The expressive speech act of thanking is a speech act that usually occurs because of the interlocutor's willingness to do what the speaker asks, the praises made by the speaker to the interlocutor, or the speaker's kindness to the interlocutor. Besides, thanking has been part of the culture of a society where people live. All religions teach the followers to be grateful, and in the Qur'an, it is also stated in Sura 14 that God will give those who are grateful more. (All praises to Allah, the almighty)

(28) Jokowi: Kami sangat berterima kasih sekali atas dukungan seluruh masyarakat Jawa Barat terhadap program ini yang kita harapkan ini nanti akan menjadi contoh perbaikan lingkungan yang baik.
(We really thank you for supports given by West Javanese people for this program that we hope to become a good example for environmental care.) -91 - The expressive speech act of thanking made by both candidates is the effort of the speakers to get harmony among individuals or societies. Considering the sentence constructions of thanking (Setyani, 2013), Prabowo thanked less sincerely, while Sandiaga Uno and Jokiowi thanked very sincerely. In the public debate, sincere thanking could influence audiences.

Agreeing
The expressive speech act of agreeing is a speech act confirming or agreeing with a request or statement from the interlocutor. This speech act can build a good relationship between the speaker and the interlocutor and avoid conflicts. In the debate, candidate 02 made more utterances for agreement with ideas from candidate 01. Stating agreement is one of the positive politeness strategies Prabowo made in the debate. Prabowo once stated in the debate that if there were no more reasons to differ, we had no reasons to disagree. From this statement, the speaker had avoided further conflicts and created a good relationship in which it was very important to build this nation, while in debate, it is very hard to agree.

Appreciating
The expressive speech act of appreciating occurs because the speaker appreciates what the interlocutor has done. The speaker has assessed what he has done, so that it deserves to be appreciated. Giving appreciation would build good relationship between candidates. Although the presidential election was an open competition between candidates, Prabowo kept showing his appreciation towards all achievements done by the opponent (Jokowi). Appreciating others is one of the values in Indonesian cultures. The next important thing is appreciating others because everyone should provide space or a way for others to progress and develop (Panjaitan, 2014) as shown by Prabowo after his loss in 2014. It was very different from the 2020 US presidential debate. Biden did not appreciate Trump as an incumbent. Even they mocked and attacked one another with sarcasm (Sartika, 2021).
Functioning the expressive speech acts above brings some implications. First, indirect expressive speech acts can avoid the opponent's face-threatening act. Second, concerning Indonesian norms and values, personal offenses should be avoided by the speakers. Third, agreeing and appreciating can build good harmony and relationship among candidates and supporters. Fourth, jokes should exist in the next debates to entertain audiences. Last, by promoting harmony and respect, the Indonesian presidential election debate has its own model, the Indonesian debate model.

Conclusion
Based on the findings and discussion previously, the expressive speech acts were made in sixteen functions. Functions like greeting, apologizing, praising, complaining, disagreeing, expressing optimism, expressing wants, and making jokes were used equally by both candidates. However, candidate 01 tended to express hopes and insinuation, and candidate 02 tended to blame, regret, criticize, thanking, agree, and appreciate. On one side, candidate 01 functioned more directly than candidate 02, and they used personal issues to offend their opponents. On the other side, candidate 02 did not offend their opponent with personal issues. They did only blame, regret, and criticize policies made by the government in which the opponent was the incumbent and appreciated all success made by the opponent. However, above all, the debate was running well and still kept Indonesian norms and values.
The recommendation is given to some parties. First, General Election Commission (KPU) can develop a complete guideline for debate programs, including the restrictions of personal offenses, to run better in the future. Then, the prospective candidates can use these findings to prepare possible speech acts and functions in future debate programs. Next, people may also use these findings as considerations in the next presidential election. Last, academicians can use it for pragmatics teaching and other interdisciplinary subjects like Public Speaking, Cross-Cultural Understanding, and Debate Analysis.
Finally, further research is required to follow up these findings, especially in investigating the influence of functioning the expressive speech acts on the candidates' win. They may also analyze the use of expressive speech acts in other situations like speeches, focus group discussions, or podcasts in which the speakers really use them.